Applied Chemistry

Chemical Manufacturing

• Haber-Bosch Process: N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃ (ammonia production)
• Contact Process: SO₂ → SO₃ → H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid)
• Ostwald Process: NH₃ → HNO₃ (nitric acid)
• Chlor-Alkali Process: 2NaCl + 2H₂O → Cl₂ + H₂ + 2NaOH

Petrochemical Industry

• Cracking: Breaking large hydrocarbons
• Reforming: Creating aromatics
• Polymerization: Making plastics
• Fuels, lubricants, plastics production

Pharmaceutical Industry

• Drug synthesis and design
• Quality control and analysis
• Process optimization
• Scale-up from lab to production

Green Chemistry Principles

1. Prevent waste
2. Atom economy
3. Less hazardous synthesis
4. Safer chemicals
5. Renewable feedstocks
6. Energy efficiency
7. Catalysis over stoichiometry
8. Biodegradable products

Atmospheric Chemistry

• Ozone Layer: O₃ protects from UV, CFCs deplete it
• Greenhouse Effect: CO₂, CH₄, N₂O trap heat
• Acid Rain: SO₂, NOₓ → H₂SO₄, HNO₃
• Photochemical Smog: Ozone from NOₓ + VOCs + sunlight

Water Chemistry

• Water Treatment: Coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection
• pH Control: Maintaining safe levels
• Hardness: Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ removal
• Contaminant Removal: Heavy metals, organic pollutants

Soil Chemistry

• Nutrient cycling (N, P, K)
• pH and fertility
• Contaminant remediation
• Heavy metal immobilization

Pollution Control

• Wastewater Treatment: Physical, biological, chemical processes
• Air Pollution Control: Scrubbers, filters, catalytic converters
• Hazardous Waste: Incineration, chemical treatment

Sustainability

• Renewable energy sources
• Carbon capture and storage
• Circular economy principles
• Life cycle assessment

Nanomaterials

Materials with dimensions 1-100 nm, exhibiting unique properties:

• Size Effects: Surface area to volume ratio increases
• Quantum Effects: Different electronic properties
• Reactivity: Enhanced catalytic activity

Types

• Nanoparticles: Gold, silver, quantum dots
• Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
• Graphene: 2D carbon sheets
• Nanocomposites: Polymer + nanoparticle

Synthesis Methods

• Top-Down: Grinding, lithography
• Bottom-Up: Self-assembly, chemical synthesis
• Green Synthesis: Biological methods

Applications

• Electronics: Smaller, faster devices
• Medicine: Drug delivery, imaging
• Energy: Solar cells, batteries
• Catalysis: More efficient reactions
• Materials: Stronger, lighter composites

Safety Considerations

• Potential toxicity concerns
• Environmental impact
• Regulatory frameworks

Polymers

• Plastics, fibers, elastomers
• Tailored properties for applications
• Biodegradable alternatives

Ceramics

• High temperature stability
• Electrical insulators or conductors
• Biomedical implants

Composites

• Fiber-reinforced materials
• Aerospace applications
• Automotive components

Smart Materials

• Shape memory alloys
• Self-healing materials
• Responsive polymers

Batteries

• Lithium-ion: LiCoO₂ cathode, graphite anode
• Flow Batteries: Redox couples in liquid
• Solid State: Next-generation technology

Fuel Cells

• H₂ + O₂ → H₂O + electricity
• Zero emissions (if H₂ from renewable sources)
• High efficiency

Solar Energy

• Photovoltaic cells (Si, perovskites)
• Solar thermal systems
• Energy storage solutions

Hydrogen Economy

• Production: Electrolysis, reforming
• Storage: High pressure, materials-based
• Use: Fuel cells, combustion